Art Ensemble of Chicago Reese the Smooth Ones

American catamenia in the 1920s and 1930s

Jazz Age

Role of the Roaring Twenties
King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra in 1921, Houston, Texas
Appointment	1920s–1930s
Location	The states
Participants	Jazz musicians and fans
Issue	Increased popularity of jazz music in the United States

The Jazz Age was a menstruum in the 1920s and 1930s in which jazz music and dance styles rapidly gained nationwide popularity in the United states. The Jazz Age'south cultural repercussions were primarily felt in the United States, the birthplace of jazz. Originating in New Orleans as mainly sourced from the civilisation of the diaspora, jazz played a meaning function in wider cultural changes in this period, and its influence on popular civilization connected long after. The Jazz Age is often referred to in conjunction with the Roaring Twenties, and in the Usa, it overlapped in significant cantankerous-cultural ways with the Prohibition Era. The movement was largely affected past the introduction of radios nationwide. During this time, the Jazz Historic period was intertwined with the developing youth culture. The motility also helped start the beginning of the European Jazz movement.

Background [edit]

The term jazz age was in popular usage prior to 1920.^{[1] [2]} In 1922, American author F. Scott Fitzgerald further popularized the term with the publication of his brusk story collection Tales of the Jazz Age.^{[3] [4]}

Jazz music [edit]

Main article: Jazz

Jazz is a music genre that originated in the Blackness-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana,^{[5] [6]} in the tardily 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in blues and ragtime.^{[vii] [8]} New Orleans provided a cultural humus in which jazz could germinate because it was a port metropolis with many cultures and beliefs intertwined.^[9] In the city, the development of jazz was influenced past Creole music, ragtime, and blues.^[ten]

Jazz is seen by many as "America'due south classical music".^[11] In the beginning of the 20th century, dixieland jazz adult equally an early form of jazz.^[12] In the 1920s, jazz became recognized every bit a major form of musical expression. It so emerged in the form of independent traditional and popular musical styles, all linked past the mutual bonds of Blackness-American and European-American musical parentage with a performance orientation.^[thirteen] From Africa, jazz derived its rhythm, "dejection", and traditions of playing or singing in i'southward own expressive way. From Europe, jazz derived its harmony and instruments.^{[14] [15]}

Louis Armstrong brought the improvisational solo to the forefront of a slice.^[10] Jazz is generally characterized by swing and bluish notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms and improvisation.

Prohibition [edit]

Prohibition in the Us was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages from 1920 to 1933. In the 1920s, the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Well-organized criminal gangs took control of the beer and liquor supply for many cities, unleashing a criminal offence wave that shocked the U.Due south. This prohibition was taken advantage of by gangsters such equally Al Capone,^[sixteen] and approximately $60 one thousand thousand (equivalent to $1,130,972,222 in 2021) in illegal alcohol was smuggled beyond the borders of Canada and the Usa.^[17] The resulting illicit speakeasies that grew from this era became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music that included current dance songs, novelty songs and shows tunes.

By the late 1920s, a new opposition mobilized across the U.S. Anti-prohibitionists, or "wets," attacked prohibition as causing crime, lowering local revenues, and imposing rural Protestant religious values on urban America.^[18] Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment on December five, 1933. Some states connected statewide prohibition, marking i of the latter stages of the Progressive Era.

Speakeasies/records [edit]

Formed as a result of the eighteenth amendment, speakeasies were places (often owned by organized criminals) where customers could potable alcohol and relax or speakeasy.^[19] Jazz was played in these speakeasies as a countercultural type of music to fit in with the illicit environment and events going on.^[20] Jazz artists were therefore hired to play at speakeasies. Al Capone, the famous organized offense leader, gave jazz musicians previously living in poverty a steady and professional income. Thaddeus Russell, in A Renegade History of the Usa, states: "The singer Ethel Waters fondly recalled that Capone treated her 'with respect, applause, deference, and paid in full.'"^[21] Too from A Renegade History of the U.s., "The pianist Earl Hines remembered that 'Scarface [Al Capone] got forth well with musicians. He liked to come into a club with his henchmen and have the band play his requests. He was very complimentary with $100 tips.'"^[21] The illegal culture of speakeasies lead to what was known as "black and tan" clubs which had multiracial crowds.^{[22] [23]}

There were many speakeasies, peculiarly in Chicago and New York. New York had, at the height of Prohibition, 32,000 speakeasies.^[24] At speakeasies, both payoffs and mechanisms for hiding alcohol were used. Charlie Burns, in recalling his ownership of several speakeasies employed these strategies as a style to preserve his and Jack Kriendler'southward illegal clubs. This includes forming relationships with local police.^[24] Mechanisms that a trusted engineer created include one that when a push was pushed, natural language blocks under shelves of liquor would driblet, making the shelves drop dorsum and liquor bottles fall down a chute, intermission, and drain the alcohol through rocks and sand. An warning also went off if the button was pushed to alert customers of a raid. Another mechanism used by Burns was a wine cellar with a thick door affluent with the wall. Information technology had a small, nigh unnoticeable hole for a rod to exist pushed in to actuate a lock and open up the door.^[25]

Rum running/bootlegging [edit]

As to where speakeasies obtained alcohol, in that location were rum runners and bootleggers. Rum running, in this instance, was the organized smuggling of liquor by land or ocean into the U.Southward. Decent foreign liquor was high-cease alcohol during prohibition, and William McCoy had some of the best of it. Bill McCoy was in the rum-running business, and at certain points of time was ranked among the best. To avoid beingness caught, he sold liquor just exterior the territorial waters of the U.s.a.. Buyers would come up to him to selection up his booze as a precaution for McCoy. McCoy's liquor specialty was selling high-quality whiskey without diluting the alcohol.^[26] Bootlegging was making and or smuggling alcohol effectually the U.S. Every bit selling the alcohol could make plenty of coin, at that place are several major means this was done. One strategy used past Frankie Yale and the Genna brothers gang (both involved in organized criminal offence) was to give poor Italian Americans alcohol stills to make booze for them at $15 per solar day's piece of work.^[27] Another strategy was to purchase liquor from rumrunners. Racketeers would also buy closed breweries and distilleries and hire former employees to make alcohol. Another person famous for organized crime named Johnny Torrio partnered with two other mobsters and legitimate brewer Joseph Stenson to make illegal beer in a total of ix breweries. Finally, some racketeers stole industrial grain alcohol and redistilled it to sell in speakeasies.^[28]

History [edit]

From 1919, Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Ring of musicians from New Orleans played in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the offset black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.^[29] The year also saw the first recording by Bessie Smith, the most famous of the 1920s dejection singers.^{[30] [31]} Chicago, meanwhile, was the main center developing the new "Hot Jazz", where Male monarch Oliver joined Bill Johnson. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.^{[32] [33]}

Acme: excerpt from the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Upwards Your Mind" by George W. Meyer & Arthur Johnston. Bottom: corresponding solo excerpt by Louis Armstrong (1924).

The same year, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band as featured soloist, leaving in 1925.^[34] The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new stage of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. Co-ordinate to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded "stiff, stodgy," with "jerky rhythms and a greyness undistinguished tone quality."^[35] The following example shows a brusque excerpt of the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" past George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (beneath) (recorded 1924).^[36] (The example approximates Armstrong's solo, as information technology does non convey his use of swing.)

Armstrong'due south solos were a pregnant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic Hot V ring, which included instrumentalist'due south Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), and wife Lil on piano, where he popularized scat singing.^[37]

Jelly Roll Morton recorded with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings in an early on mixed-race collaboration, and so in 1926 formed his Ruby Hot Peppers. In that location was a larger market for jazzy trip the light fantastic music played by white orchestras, such every bit Jean Goldkette's orchestra and Paul Whiteman's orchestra. In 1924, Whiteman commissioned Gershwin'southward Rhapsody in Blue, premiered by Whiteman's Orchestra. Writer F. Scott Fitzgerald opined that Rhapsody in Blue idealized the youthful zeitgeist of the Jazz Age.^[38] By the mid-1920s, Whiteman was the well-nigh pop bandleader in the U.South. His success was based on a "rhetoric of domestication" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable a previously inchoate kind of music.^[39] Other influential large ensembles included Fletcher Henderson'south band, Duke Ellington's band (which opened an influential residency at the Cotton Society in 1927) in New York, and Earl Hines' Ring in Chicago (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe at that place in 1928). All significantly influenced the development of big band-style swing jazz.^[40] Past 1930, the New Orleans-mode ensemble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world.^[41]

Several musicians grew up in musical families, where a family unit member would oft teach how to read and play music. Some musicians, like Pops Foster, learned on homemade instruments.^[42]

Urban radio stations played African-American jazz more frequently than suburban stations, due to the concentration of African Americans in urban areas such as New York and Chicago. Younger demographics popularized the black-originated dances such every bit the Charleston as part of the immense cultural shift the popularity of jazz music generated.^{[43] [44] [4]}

Swing in the 1920s and 1930s [edit]

The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz ring included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Harry James, Jimmie Lunceford, Glenn Miller and Artie Shaw. Although information technology was a collective sound, swing too offered individual musicians a run a risk to "solo" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be complex "important" music.

Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders recruit white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and guitarist Charlie Christian to bring together small-scale groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified past tenor saxophonist Lester Young marked the transition from large bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early on 1940s manner known as "jumping the blues" or jump blues used pocket-sized combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s.

Radio [edit]

The introduction of large-scale radio broadcasts enabled the rapid national spread of jazz in 1932. The radio was described as the "sound factory." Radio made it possible for millions to hear music for costless — especially people who never attended expensive, afar big metropolis clubs.^[45] These broadcasts originated from clubs in leading centers such equally New York, Chicago, Kansas Urban center, and Los Angeles. In that location were ii categories of alive music on the radio: concert music and large ring dance music. The concert music was known as "potter palm" and was concert music by amateurs, commonly volunteers.^[46] Big band dance music is played by professionals and was featured from nightclubs, dance halls, and ballrooms.^[47]

Musicologist Charles Hamm described iii types of jazz music at the time: black music for black audiences, black music for white audiences, and white music for white audiences.^[48] Jazz artists like Louis Armstrong originally received very little airtime because about stations preferred to play the music of white American jazz singers. Other jazz vocalists include Bessie Smith and Florence Mills. In urban areas, such as Chicago and New York, African-American jazz was played on the radio more frequently than in the suburbs. Big-band jazz, like that of James Reese Europe and Fletcher Henderson in New York, attracted large radio audiences.^[49]

Elements and influences [edit]

Youth [edit]

Young people in the 1920s used the influence of jazz to rebel against the traditional culture of previous generations. This youth rebellion of the 1920s included such things as flapper fashions, women who smoked cigarettes in public, a willingness to talk about sex freely, and radio concerts. Dances similar the Charleston, developed by African Americans, suddenly became popular among the youth. Traditionalists were aghast at what they considered the breakup of morality.^[50] Some urban middle-grade African Americans perceived jazz equally "devil'due south music", and believed the improvised rhythms and sounds were promoting promiscuity.^[51]

Role of women [edit]

With women'due south suffrage—the right for women to vote—at its acme with the ratification of the Nineteenth Subpoena on Baronial 18, 1920, and the entrance of the free-spirited flapper, women began to accept on a larger part in gild and civilisation. With women at present taking role in the work force after the terminate of the Start World War there were at present many more possibilities for women in terms of social life and entertainment. Ideas such as equality and open sexuality were very pop during the time and women seemed to capitalize on these ideas during this period. The 1920s saw the emergence of many famous women musicians, including Bessie Smith. Bessie Smith also gained attention because she was non only a cracking vocalizer but also an African-American adult female. She has grown through the ages to exist one of the about well respected singers of all time and inspired afterwards performers such as Billie Holiday.^[52]

Lovie Austin (1887–1972) was a Chicago-based bandleader, session musician (piano), composer, singer, and arranger during the 1920s classic blues era. She and Lil Hardin Armstrong often are ranked as ii of the best female jazz blues piano players of the period.^[53]

Piano player Lil Hardin Armstrong was originally a member of King Oliver'southward band with Louis, and went on to play piano in her husband's ring the Hot 5 and and so his adjacent group called the Hot 7.^[54] It was not until the 1930s and 1940s that many women jazz singers, such as Bessie Smith and Billie Holiday, were recognized every bit successful artists in the music world.^{[54] [55]} Another famous female person vocalizer who attained stardom at the tail-stop of the Jazz Age was Ella Fitzgerald, one of the more popular female person jazz singers in the United states of america for more than half a century and after dubbed "The First Lady of Vocal".^[56] She worked with all the jazz greats of the era, including Chick Webb,^[57] Duke Ellington,^[58] Count Basie, and Benny Goodman.^[59] These women were persistent in striving to make their names known in the music industry and to lead the manner for many more women artists to come up.^[54]

Influence of heart-class white Americans [edit]

The birth of jazz is credited to African Americans.^[60] Merely it was modified to become socially acceptable to centre-class white Americans. Those disquisitional of jazz saw it as music from people with no training or skill.^[61] White performers were used as a vehicle for the popularization of jazz music in America. Although jazz was taken over by the white middle-grade population, it facilitated the mesh of African American traditions and ideals with white middle-class society.^[62]

Beginnings of European jazz [edit]

Equally but a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe during and afterward World War I. It was their alive performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, also as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time.^[63] The ancestry of a singled-out European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.

British jazz began with a tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919.^[64] In 1926, Fred Elizalde and His Cambridge Undergraduates began dissemination on the BBC.^[65] Thereafter jazz became an of import element in many leading dance orchestras, and jazz instrumentalists became numerous. Very presently, the resulting music craze in the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland led to a moral panic in which the threat of jazz to society was exemplified by Scottish artist John Bulloch Souter'southward controversial 1926 painting The Breakdown.^[66] The painting has been described every bit embodying the fears of Western civilization towards jazz music,^[67] and the painting was afterward destroyed by its author to placate critics who insisted the work should be burned.^[68]

The European way of jazz entered full swing in France with the Quintette du Hot Society de France, which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is piece of cake to meet the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his mode was also a fusion of the two.^[69] Belgian guitarist Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette", and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive experience; the main instruments were steel-stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos laissez passer from ane player to another as guitar and bass form the rhythm section. Some researchers believe Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti pioneered the guitar-violin partnership characteristic of the genre which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the tardily 1920s.^[lxx]

Criticism of the motility [edit]

During this fourth dimension period, jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, and many members of the older generations saw information technology equally threatening the one-time cultural values and promoting the new corrupt values of the Roaring Twenties. Professor Henry van Dyke of Princeton University wrote: "... information technology is not music at all. Information technology'southward merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion."^[71] The media also began to denigrate jazz. The New York Times used stories and headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagers were said by the paper to have used jazz to scare off bears, when in fact they had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal middle attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.

Classical music [edit]

Every bit jazz flourished, American elites who preferred classical music sought to aggrandize the listenership of their favored genre, hoping that jazz would not become mainstream.^[72] Controversially, jazz became an influence on composers as various as George Gershwin and Herbert Howells.

See likewise [edit]

• Flapper
• The Swell Gatsby

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ Oxford English language Lexicon 2021.
2. ^ Houghton Line 1919, pp. 6, 9; Literary Digest 1919, p. 31.
3. ^ Berg 1978, p. 217; Henderson 2013.
4. ^ ^{a b} Cooke 1998, p. 52: "The popularity of new dance styles helped jazz to develop from the march-similar tread of its early on days into the snappy, syncopated music so characteristic of what F. Scott Fitzgerald dubbed 'The Jazz Age'."
5. ^ Roth 1952, pp. 305, 312.
6. ^ National Park Service 2015.
7. ^ Roth 1952, p. 306.
8. ^ Germuska 1995.
9. ^ Ward & Burns 2001, pp. ii–3.
10. ^ ^{a b} Biocca 1990, p. 1.
11. ^ Sales 1984, p. 3.
12. ^ Cooke 1998, p. 52; Peretti 1992, p. 76.
13. ^ Hennessey 1973, pp. 470–473.
14. ^ Ward & Burns 2001, p. x; Schuller 1968, p. 3.
15. ^ Roth 1952, p. 312: "It is here that we find one of the white, or European, influences upon American Negro music; it is the central one, I remember, and the one which has the well-nigh to practise with the birth of jazz. Nosotros may call information technology⁠—as I have called information technology heretofore⁠—the instrumentalizing of the human voice."
16. ^ Okrent 2010, p. 321.
17. ^ Okrent 2010, p. 360.
18. ^ Orchowski 2015, p. 32.
19. ^ Okrent 2010, pp. 207–210.
20. ^ Ward & Burns 2001, p. 76: "Theirs would become the music of choice in cabarets and speakeasies and roadhouses, and would provide the accessory for the period F. Scott Fitzgerald would soon call the Jazz Age."
21. ^ ^{a b} Russell 2010, p. 230.
22. ^ Okrent 2010, p. 212: "Another barrier savage with the arrival of the 'black and tans,' integrated cabarets and nightclubs, usually in black neighborhoods and commonly featuring leading African-American jazz musicians."
23. ^ Peretti 1992, p. 31; Ward & Burns 2001.
24. ^ ^{a b} Okrent 2010, p. 264: "Each of the thirty-two thousand speakeasies in New York probably paid a trounce cop v dollars a day to go on the taps and the greenbacks register open."
25. ^ Hill 2004, pp. 153, 155, 156.
26. ^ Hill 2004, pp. 120, 121.
27. ^ Rodgers 1997.
28. ^ Okrent 2010, p. 201.
29. ^ Cooke 1998, p. 54.
30. ^ Cooke 1998, pp. xx–21.
31. ^ Santelli 2001, p. 423.
32. ^ Ward & Burns 2001, p. 101.
33. ^ Cooke 1998, p. 79.
34. ^ Wilson 2007.
35. ^ Schuller 1968, p. 91.
36. ^ Schuller 1968, p. 93.
37. ^ Cooke 1998, pp. 56–59, 66–70, 78–79.
38. ^ Fitzgerald 2004, p. 93.
39. ^ Dunkel 2015, p. 123.
40. ^ Cooke 1998, pp. 82–83, 100–103.
41. ^ Schuller 1968, p. 88.
42. ^ Chevan 2002, p. 201.
43. ^ Peretti 1992, p. 50; Cooke 1998, p. 40.
44. ^ Ward & Burns 2001, p. 107.
45. ^ Biocca 1990, p. 3.
46. ^ De Roche 2015, p. 18.
47. ^ Barlow 1995, p. 327.
48. ^ Savran 2006, p. 461.
49. ^ Barlow 1995, pp. 326–327.
50. ^ Fass 1977, p. 22.
51. ^ Berger 1947, p. 463: "Calling jazz an 'agency of the devil,' the pastor of the Calvary Baptist Church building in New York said in 1926: 'Jazz, with its . . . appeal to the sensuous, should be stamped out.' The rector of the Episcopal Church building of the Ascension in New York said in 1922: 'Jazz is retrogression. Information technology is going to the African jungle for our music.'"
52. ^ Ward 2004, pp. 458–460.
53. ^ Santelli 2001, p. 20.
54. ^ ^{a b c} Borzillo 1996, pp. 1, 94–96.
55. ^ Cooke 1998, p. 129: "Holiday (1919–59) is widely recognized as the greatest jazz vocalist of all time, a performer who revolutionized the art of jazz singing in the 1930s and exerted a powerful influence on subsequent vocalists."
56. ^ Cooke 1998, p. 128: "Ella Fitzgerald'southward extensive 'songbook' recordings made between 1956 and 1964 remain among the best-selling vocal albums in jazz."
57. ^ Ward & Burns 2001, pp. 270, 272.
58. ^ Crow 1990, p. 251.
59. ^ Ward & Burns 2001, p. 272.
60. ^ McCann 2008, p. 3.
61. ^ Berger 1947, p. 463: "Those who opposed jazz with no qualification whatever saw in it an appeal to sensuousness, a return to primitive forms, and described information technology every bit the music of persons without any training."
62. ^ Barlow 1995, p. 325.
63. ^ Wynn 2007, p. 67.
64. ^ Godbolt 2005, pp. 8–11.
65. ^ Godbolt 2005, pp. 29, 46, 67.
66. ^ Godbolt 2005, pp. 29–31.
67. ^ Blake 1999, p. 89.
68. ^ McKay 2005, p. 121–122; Shearer 2018.
69. ^ Jackson 2002, pp. 149–170.
70. ^ Ward & Burns 2001, p. 299; Peretti 1992, p. 201.
71. ^ Ward & Burns 2001, p. 78.
72. ^ Biocca 1990, p. nine.

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• Russell, Thaddeus (2010). A Renegade History of the United States. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN978-1-4165-7109-4 – via Google Books.
• Sales, Grover (1984). Jazz: America's Classical Music. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN978-0-13-509126-5 – via Google Books.
• Santelli, Robert (2001). The Big Book of Blues: A Biographical Encyclopedia . New York: Penguin Books. ISBN0-14-100145-3 – via Net Annal.
• Savran, David (2006). "The Search for America's Soul: Theatre in the Jazz Age". Theatre Journal. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Printing. 58 (three): 459–476. doi:10.1353/tj.2006.0171. JSTOR 25069871. S2CID 192117168.
• Schuller, Gunther (1968). Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development . New York: Oxford University Press. LCCN 68-17610 – via Cyberspace Archive.
• Shearer, Carly (April 24, 2018). "The Threat of Jazz: John Bulloch Souter'due south 'The Breakdown'". Edinburgh, Scotland: Lyon & Turnbull. Retrieved November 21, 2021.
• The Houghton Line. Vol. 24–25. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: E. F. Houghton & Co. 1919 – via Google Books. I am not convinced, withal, that the 'jazz age' is the crusade of the church losing its influence.
• Ward, Geoffrey C.; Burns, Ken (2001). Jazz: A History of America'southward Music (1st ed.). New York: Pimlico. ISBN978-0-679-76539-4 – via Internet Archive.
• Ward, Larry F. (December 2004). "Bessie". Notes. Middleton, Wisconsin: Music Library Association. 61 (ii). doi:10.1353/non.2004.0171. JSTOR 4487383. S2CID 201766523.
• Wilson, Nancy (December 19, 2007). "Fletcher Henderson: 'Builder of Swing'". NPR's Jazz Profiles. Washington, D.C.: National Public Radio (NPR). Retrieved November 21, 2021.
• Wynn, Neil A., ed. (2007). Cross the Water Blues: African American Music in Europe (1st ed.). Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN978-one-60473-546-8 – via Google Books.

Farther reading [edit]

• Allen, Frederick Lewis (1931). Merely Yesterday: An Informal History of the Nineteen-Twenties (1st ed.). New York and London: Harper & Brothers – via Internet Archive.
• Allen, Frederick Lewis (1939). Since Yesterday: The 1930s in America . New York: Harper and Row – via Internet Archive.
• Dinerstein, Joel (2003). "Music, Memory, and Cultural Identity in the Jazz Historic period". American Quarterly. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. 55 (ii): 303–313. doi:10.1353/aq.2003.0012. JSTOR 30041974. S2CID 145194943.
• Doerksen, Clifford J. (2005). American Babel: Rogue Radio Broadcasters of the Jazz Age. Philadelphia: Academy of Pennsylvania Printing. ISBN978-0-8122-0176-5 – via Google Books.
• Dumenil, Lynn (1995). The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s . New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN0-8090-1566-eight – via Internet Archive.
• Fitzgerald, F. Scott (1945). Wilson, Edmund (ed.). Echoes of the Jazz Age . The Crack-Upwards. New York: New Directions. pp. 13–22. ISBN0-8112-0051-5 – via Internet Archive.
• Kyvig, David Due east. (2002). Daily Life in the U.s.a., 1920–1939: Decades of Promise and Pain . Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Printing. ISBN0-313-29555-seven. LCCN 2001023857 – via Net Annal.
• Leuchtenburg, William (1958). The Perils of Prosperity, 1914–1932 . Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-47368-6. LCCN 58-5680 – via Cyberspace Annal.
• Lynd, Robert South.; Lynd, Helen Merrell (1929). Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture . New York: Harcourt, Caryatid and Company – via Internet Archive.
• Mowry, George Due east. (1963). The Twenties: Fords, Flappers, & Fanatics . Englewood Cliffs, New Bailiwick of jersey: Prentice-Hall. LCCN 63-19425 – via Internet Archive.
• Parrish, Michael E. (1992). Anxious Decades: America in Prosperity and Depression, 1920–1941 . New York and London: W.W. Norton. ISBN0-393-03394-5 – via Net Annal.
• Sullivan, Mark (1936). Our Times, 1900–1925: Book IV – The Twenties (1st ed.). New York and London: Charles Scribner's Sons – via Internet Archive.

External links [edit]

• The Jazz Age In America
• Roaring Twenties from U S History.com

fillmoretheen1988.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_Age

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